NANO PESTICIDES: SYNTHESIS, MECHANISMS, AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS, AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

Abstract

This review examines the synthesis, classification, mechanisms of action, agricultural efficacy, ecotoxicology, and regulation of nano-pesticides, including metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles, polymer-based nanocarriers (chitosan, PLGA, zein), nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, and clay-based nanosystems such as halloysite nanotubes. Controlled release, increased bioavailability, targeted delivery, lower doses, and reduced environmental persistence give these formulations benefits over conventional pesticides. They act by generating toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), disrupting membranes, inhibiting enzymes and modulating gene expression. However, impacts on non-target organisms require complete risk assessment. Future directions include stimuli-responsive delivery linked to precision agriculture, and uniform global regulatory policies.