LONG-TERM NUTRITION TRANSITION IN KARNATAKA: RURAL–URBAN CHANGES IN MACRONUTRIENT INTAKE AND FOOD SOURCES

Abstract

The study examined long-term changes in estimated household macronutrient and energy intake in rural and urban Karnataka, India, from 1993–94 to 2023–24. Successive National Sample Survey rounds and the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey were harmonised to estimate daily per-capita carbohydrate, protein, fat, and energy intake and to compare the five leading food sources of each macronutrient in 1993–94 and 2023–24. In rural Karnataka, carbohydrate intake declined from 391.02 to 333.79 g/person/day, whereas protein rose from 52.62 to 60.68 g/person/day, fat from 24.82 to 65.06 g/person/day, and energy from 1,997.93 to 2,163.38 kcal/person/day. In urban Karnataka, carbohydrate declined from 352.09 to 334.82 g/person/day, while protein rose from 49.63 to 63.60 g/person/day, fat from 33.21 to 70.96 g/person/day, and energy from 1,905.75 to 2,232.28 kcal/person/day. In 2023–24, protein, fat, and energy intake were significantly higher in urban than in rural households (p < 0.001), whereas carbohydrate intake did not differ significantly (p = 0.601). Rice remained a major carbohydrate and protein source, but refined oils became the leading fat source, and milk, chicken, and cooked meals gained prominence. Karnataka’s household food basket thus became less dependent on carbohydrate-rich staples and more protein- and fat-intensive in both sectors, although rural–urban differences in food sources persisted and greater diversification did not necessarily imply improved diet quality.