NANOCARRIER STRATEGIES TO OVERCOME ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a major global health challenge, substantially reducing the effectiveness of conventional antimicrobial therapy and complicating the management of bacterial infections. The increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant pathogens has created an urgent need for therapeutic approaches capable of improving antimicrobial efficacy while overcoming biological and microbial barriers to treatment. Nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems have gained considerable attention as promising platforms for addressing these challenges. This review discusses the major mechanisms underlying bacterial antimicrobial resistance, including enzymatic drug inactivation, target modification, reduced membrane permeability, active efflux, biofilm-associated protection, and horizontal transfer of resistance determinants. The principal nanocarrier platforms investigated for antimicrobial applications, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, metallic nanomaterials, dendrimers, and biomimetic systems, are also examined. Particular emphasis is placed on strategies through which nanocarriers can enhance antimicrobial delivery, improve cellular uptake, facilitate biofilm penetration, protect antimicrobial agents from degradation, enable controlled or targeted release, and support combination therapy. Recent preclinical advances and the potential of multifunctional nanocarriers against drug-resistant bacterial infections are further discussed. Despite promising experimental findings, challenges related to nanotoxicity, formulation stability, manufacturing, pharmacokinetics, reproducibility, and clinical translation remain. Overall, nanocarrier-based approaches represent a versatile and potentially complementary strategy for improving antimicrobial therapy and addressing selected barriers associated with AMR.