GENETIC AND MOLECULAR INSIGHTS INTO WATERBORNE DISEASES: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF TRANSMISSION MECHANISMS, MICROBIAL ETIOLOGY, AND PREVENTION STRATEGIES

Abstract

Waterborne diseases remain a major global public health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation is limited. These diseases are primarily caused by a diverse group of pathogenic microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths, which are transmitted through contaminated water sources. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the transmission pathways, microbial etiology, and key environmental and socio-economic determinants influencing the spread of waterborne diseases. The paper highlights major causative agents such as Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., rotaviruses, noroviruses, and protozoan parasites including Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. It further explores the mechanisms of pathogen survival, persistence, and resistance in aquatic environments, as well as the role of climate change, urbanization, and infrastructure deficiencies in exacerbating disease outbreaks.In addition, this review examines current prevention and control strategies, including water treatment technologies, sanitation improvements, hygiene practices, and public health interventions. Emphasis is placed on integrated approaches that combine microbiological monitoring, risk assessment, and community-based education to reduce disease burden.Despite significant advancements, waterborne diseases continue to pose serious health risks, underscoring the need for sustainable water management, strengthened surveillance systems, and global collaboration. This review aims to provide a comprehensive scientific foundation for researchers, policymakers, and public health professionals working to mitigate the impact of waterborne diseases worldwide..