NEUROINFLAMMATION IN NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS: MOLECULAR MECHANISMS, CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS, AND EMERGING THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES

Abstract

Neuroinflammation is a dynamic immune response within the central nervous system that contributes to both tissue protection and neurological injury. This review examines the cellular mediators, molecular pathways, clinical consequences, diagnostic biomarkers, and emerging treatments associated with neuroinflammation across neurological disorders. Microglia, astrocytes, endothelial cells, peripheral leukocytes, cytokines, chemokines, complement proteins, reactive oxygen species, and inflammasomes interact to regulate neuronal survival, synaptic function, myelin integrity, and blood-brain barrier stability. Persistent activation of these mechanisms contributes to Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, stroke, traumatic brain and spinal cord injury, epilepsy, central nervous system infections, and neuropsychiatric comorbidities. Blood brain barrier disruption and immune–vascular crosstalk further amplify leukocyte infiltration, oxidative damage, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. Cerebrospinal fluid, blood-based, imaging, and multi-omics biomarkers may improve early diagnosis, disease monitoring, prognostic assessment, and patient stratification. Current therapeutic approaches include corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents, monoclonal antibodies, cytokine inhibitors, inflammasome blockers, and strategies targeting glial activation, ferroptosis, and oxidative stress. Nanotechnology-based delivery systems may enhance central nervous system penetration and reduce systemic toxicity. Integrating peripheral immune status with central molecular changes may clarify disease heterogeneity and support rational combination therapies across distinct conditions. Future progress depends on distinguishing protective from harmful inflammation, identifying stage-specific therapeutic windows, validating biomarkers, and developing precise, individualized neuroimmune interventions.